The Drying Springs of Kashmir
The Himalayan Region is home to a vast network of natural springs, essential for sustaining millions of people and ecosystems. These springs serve as crucial lifelines in the region’s water supply system and are known by various names across different areas, such as Chasma and Naag in Jammu & Kashmir, Chhumik in Ladakh, Panihar and Baori in Himachal Pradesh, Naula and Dhara in Uttarakhand, and Dhara in North-East India respectively.
Sources of spring water: Spring water comes from underground aquifers or water-bearing layers that store and transmit water. Springs function through three interconnected zones: the recharge zone, where precipitation or surface water replenishes the aquifer; the transition zone, where water moves from the source to the outlet; and the discharge zone, where this water emerges as a spring. The health of these zones is critical for maintaining a healthy spring.
Key sources of spring water include rainwater, melting snow or ice in mountainous regions and surface water from rivers or streams etc. Geological formations like faults or porous rocks can also cause groundwater to naturally flow to the surface. In southern Kashmir, Karst springs—formed in soluble limestone bedrock, are prime examples of how water dissolves rock to create underground channels that later surface as springs.
Notable Karst springs like Kokernag, Sheerbag, Panzathnag, Malaknag, Verinag, Aripal, Martandnag, and Achabal etc., emerge from this unique limestone terrain. The region’s Karst landscape is characterized by dissected ridges and is found in areas such as Kokernag, Verinag, Achabal, Mattan, Anantnag, Zajibal-Sheshnag, Beerwah, Tral, Manasbal, and Bandipora. Around 258 different types of springs have been reported in the Kashmir valley. Together, these sources ensure a steady flow of freshwater vital for both ecosystems and communities.
Importance of springs: Springs are essential sources of freshwater, feeding nearly every river across the globe. In the HR and throughout India, millions of people depend on spring water for drinking, agriculture, and sustaining ecosystems. Springs are crucial for maintaining water supplies, particularly in areas with limited surface water. They significantly contribute to the base flow of major Himalayan Rivers, sometimes even more than glaciers, ice, and snow. By feeding rivers and wetlands, springs support irrigation, agriculture, and ecosystem health, while also replenishing groundwater. Additionally, springs act as natural filtration systems, providing clean water to communities. Thermal springs, such as Tata-Pani in Jammu & Kashmir, attract wellness tourists, and many springs have cultural significance, fostering eco-tourism. In Kashmir, the Jal Shakti Department oversees the management of these springs, ensuring reliable drinking water supply for local communities.
Potential threats to springs: Of late, springs are facing increasing threats from climate change, environmental degradation, and human activities, creating a growing crisis for local communities. This issue is particularly severe in the Himalayan region, home to approximately 60% of the world’s five million springs.
Nearly half of these springs are drying up or becoming seasonal, further intensifying the water crisis in rural areas. Over the past four decades, water levels in most streams and rivers in the region have decreased by two-thirds, and hundreds of springs have dried up or are on the brink of doing so. In Jammu & Kashmir, the spring-fed River Tawi, which serves about 3 million people, has seen a decrease in its lean season discharge by 0.64 cumecs annually. Similarly, in Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand, the drying of springs has led to migration, while the Northeastern states are experiencing a severe water crisis, with hundreds of villages impacted.
Various factors, including erratic rainfall, seismic activity, and ecological degradation due to infrastructure development, are causing springs to dry up or lose discharge. Changing precipitation patterns, diminished winter rainfall, and intensified summer monsoons disrupt the water cycle, while rising temperatures accelerate glacier melt, affecting river and spring flows. Deforestation, which reduces groundwater recharge, and over-extraction of groundwater exacerbate seasonal drying. Human activities such as road construction and excessive groundwater extraction further strain aquifers, threatening the sustainability of springs. As settlements expand and roads are built over traditional water sources, access to these vital resources becomes more difficult. In the Western Himalayas, for example, households spend an average of 33 minutes each day collecting water from external sources.
Drying springs of Kashmir: This winter, the drying of iconic springs across Kashmir starkly illustrates the severe impacts of climate change. Social media videos show the reduced flow and drying up of well-known springs like Achabal, Panzath, Aripal, etc. Long-time residents, some over 70 years of age, report never having seen the springs dry up in such a manner, highlighting the devastating effects of climate change. Kashmir is on the brink of a potential drought, with minimal precipitation in January and February causing the depletion of many water bodies. Achabal spring, historically vital for agriculture, irrigation, and drinking water, is particularly affected, impacting locals and trout farmers.
The decline of Achabal spring is also threatening the historic Mughal garden built by Empress Nur Jahan in the 17th century. Other springs across the valley, including Aripal (Tral), Verinag, Panzathnag (Qazigund), Sheerbag (Anantnag) and Bulbul Nag (Pulwama) etc, are also showing the signs of drying up and reduced flow. Similar water shortages are being reported in other parts of Kashmir, including Vaishav, Rambiara, and Doodh Ganga etc. While this issue is not exclusive to Kashmir, it is especially pronounced in the valley this winter. In addition to climate change, the destruction of aquifer structures and changes to the springshed configuration are further accelerating the loss of spring flow.
Local residents attribute illegal mining in nearby streams as a significant factor contributing to the depletion of water sources including springs. The Brengi River’s stream flow that disappears at Wandevelgam, which is believed to resurface at Achabal Spring 16 km away, is also being affected by geological changes and human activities. Riverbed excavation and borewell installation are further exacerbating the drying of springs, particularly in areas where urbanization and infrastructure development have disturbed the natural water flow.
Climate change in Kashmir: The drying of springs in the Kashmir Valley is likely linked to climate change, particularly rising temperatures and an 80% reduction in snowfall this winter. Streams and tributaries, including the Jhelum River, are facing severe water shortages, raising concerns that this trend could lead to drought-like conditions, severely affecting agriculture, horticulture, and tourism in coming days. As per reports, around 65% of water sources in the region are depleting, exacerbating the crisis. Satellite imagery reveals shrinking snow cover and glacier retreat, both crucial for maintaining Kashmir’s water bodies, including springs.
The average annual temperature in Kashmir has increased by 0.8°C since 1980, with the maximum temperature rising by 1.05°C since 2000, resulting in more extreme summers and dry winters. The most visible impact is reduced water discharge, driven by declining precipitation and altered snowfall patterns in the Pir-Panjal range. In the region, glaciers have retreated by 10-15% between 2000 and 2020, while ongoing deficits in rainfall and snowfall, along with early loss of snow cover in recharge zones, have probably contributed to the depletion of springs. Additionally, land use changes, rapid development activities like road construction and tunneling, house building and a shift from agriculture to horticulture have worsened the situation.
Scientific studies of hydrological, meteorological, glaciological, and ecological data confirm the significant impacts of climate change in the valley, which is threatening water security and further endangering springs. This crisis is part of a broader trend across the entire Himalayan region, where decreasing spring discharge is jeopardizing water security for millions. The coming summer is expected to pose significant challenges for farmers and those relying on springs for drinking water.
Conclusion and Recommendation: Springs in the region are essential resources, and their decline could have severe consequences for both people and ecosystems. Immediate action is necessary to prevent the collapse of these vital water sources. Addressing the combined threats of climate change, human activity, and environmental degradation, while understanding local hydrology, is key to ensuring water security for future generations by prioritizing the protection and revival of springs. In Kashmir, an urgent response to the climate emergency is required, as decreasing snowfall, shrinking cryosphere, rising temperatures, and drying springs are clear indicators of a broader crisis. To counter the decline of springs, it is essential to focus on sustainable land-use practices and ecosystem protection, while exploring detailed case studies and additional resources for effective Springshed Management vis-a-vis Spring Rejuvenation and Revival. Continuing spring revival efforts, based on hydrological, geological and hydrometereological principles and supported by NGOs and government agencies, is critical for safeguarding these water sources.
Coordinating efforts between scientists, policymakers, and local communities is essential for successful spring protection, while community-based monitoring programs, active local involvement, and public awareness campaigns will empower communities to lead conservation efforts for spring protection and conservation.
The Government of India has launched various initiatives aimed at enhancing water security, including the conservation of springs. Key programs like the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), focusing on “Source Sustainability,” and the Springshed Rejuvenation initiative under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (WDC-PMKSY 2.0), are central to these efforts. Additionally, the establishment of the NITI Aayog Working Group on the “Inventory and Revival of Springs for Water Security in the Himalayas” underscores the importance of springs for long-term water security. The NITI Aayog report highlights the lack of a comprehensive Spring Inventory and recommends creating a Web-enabled platform to map, geotag, and monitor springs. This portal would allow state departments, research institutions, and NGOs to contribute data for better tracking and management of springs.
The report stresses the need for understanding the spatial and temporal status of springs, identifying vulnerable sources, and conducting periodic censuses to assess the impacts of climate change and anthropogenic activities. These efforts would inform strategies and expedite Springshed Management for Spring Rejuvenation and Revival well in time. In this regard, the MI (Stat.), Department of Water Resources, Rural Development & Ganga Rejuvenation (DoWR, RD & GR), in technical collaboration with the National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) Roorkee, has initiated India’s first nationwide Spring Census. NIH has also published a Resource Book on “Springshed Management in India’s Mountainous Regions”, offering guidance on sustainable practices for spring protection.
A dedicated “Spring Studies Cell” to conduct research on spring hydrology and develop protection strategies has also been established at NIH. The Western Himalayan Regional Centre (WHRC), Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, has further supported these efforts by researching springs in the Tawi River Basin, developing an interactive Web Inventory, publishing a Spring Atlas, and organizing training to enhance local capacity in Springshed Management and Rejuvenation. These initiatives are crucial for ensuring the protection and sustainability of these essential water sources.
It is rightly quoted: “People Move Wherever Water Moves”
Dr. Riyaz Ahmad Mir, Scientist, National Institute of Hydrology, Western Himalayan Regional Centre J&K, Jammu.
